Kate Chopins The Awakening Essay -- Kate Chopin Awakening Essays Pape

Kate Chopin's The Awakening In Kate Chopin's novel The Awakening, written approximately one hundred years ago, the protagonist Edna Pontellier's fate is resolved when she 'deliberately swims out to her death in the gulf'(Public Opinion, np). Her own suicide is indeed considered as a small, almost nonexistent victory by many, nevertheless there are those who consider her death anything but insignificant. Taking into consideration that 'her inability to articulate her feelings and analyze her situation [unattainable happiness] results in her act of suicide...'(Muirhead, np) portrays Edna as being incapable of achieving a release from her restricted womanhood as imposed by society. Others state that the final scene of the novel entirely symbolizes and realizes Edna's victory on a 'society that sees their [women's] primary value in their biological functions as wives and mothers?(Kate Chopin, np). In short, The Awakening is the tragic story of a woman who in a summer of her twenty-eighth year, found herself and struggled to do what she wanted to do; be happy. Although ?from wanting to, she did, with disastrous consequences?(Recent Novels 96). For those who wanted it to be a truly, and ironically, life achieving instead of life ending end, it was. But those who disagreed with Chopin?s choice ending found themselves losing some sleep over another magnificent author gone wrong (96). Various readers and reviewers alike found the ending to be sold short and unsatisfactory since it did not deliver the promise of a rewarding happy life to the protagonist who so valiantly endured her obstacles throughout the novel. Had she lived by Prof. William James? advice to do one thing a day one does not want to do [in Creole Society, two would perhaps be better], flirted less and looked after her children more, or even assisted at more accouchements- her chef d?auvre in self denial- we need not have been put to the unpleasantness of reading about her and the temptations she trumped up for herself. (96) Irony plays an inexplicable and majestic part in the conclusion of The Awakening. One can say with confidence that in a story a protagonist, or heroin in this case, is expected to fulfill a happily ever after ending not only from a repetitious guarantee but from the incisive determination by such character, whom through hardships, earned it. Edna Pontellier... ...ine. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com Muirhead, Marion. ?Articulation And Artistry: A Conversational Analysis of The Awakening.? The Southern Literary Journal 33.1 (2000): n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/slj/33.1muirhead.html ?Kate Chopin.? Gale Group (1999): n. pag. Online. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com/servlet/SRC ?Recent Novels: The Awakening.? The Nation Vol. LXIX, No. 1779 (3 Aug. 1899): 96 pp. Online. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com/servlet/LitRC Bogard, Carley R. ?The Awakening: A Refusal To Compromise.? The University of Michigan Papers in Women?s Studies U Vol. II, No. 3 (1977): pp. 15-31. Online. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com/servlet/LitRC Eichelberger, Clayton L. ?The Awakening: Overview.? Reference Guide to American Literature 3rd ed. (1994): n. pag. Online. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com/servlet/LitRC Eble, Kenneth. ?A Forgotten Novel: Kate Chopin?s The Awakening.? Western Humanities Review No. 3 (1956):pp. 261-69. Online. Galenet. 4 April 2001. Available FTP: www.galenet.com/servlet/LitRC

Individualism in Literature Essay

Individualism is one of the most wondrous themes of literature because of its contribution to the pursuit of human dignity. Individualism is a moral stance and a philosophical concept which puts emphasis on the moral worth and the supreme and intrinsic value of human beings (Lukes 51). Literature has proved to be an outlet for an artist’s own definition of individualism. Due to the fact that such philosophical concept is associated with so many aspects of life including society and culture and art, authors have devoted ample time in using individualism creatively while demonstrating social awareness and way of life. Among the authors who explore the concept of individualism are Ayn Rand, Charlotte Gilman and Margaret Atwood. The characters in the literary works of such authors reflect how the pursuit for individualism can be disturbed ans stunted with the occurrence of love. Rand’s dystopian book called Anthem explores the turbulent period in which mankind is forced to live with the harsh setbacks of irrationality and collectivism, and the failures of socialistic upbringing and economics. In Anthem, a youth named Equality 7-2521 finds himself in a hidden tunnel, isolating himself from an anti-individualistic society and realizinng how much solace and solitude suit him. But his search for individualism is being disrupted by the Golden One, a beautiful peasant girl whom he considers as a valuable element in his eyes (Rand 19). In Gilman’s novel titled Herland, three adventurous friends journey into an all-female land called Herland and its women deprived of social realities of the modern world and the contribution of masculinity to their maternal well-being (Gilman 95). Atwood’s novel, The Handmaid’s Tale presents to readers the search for individualism in a Puritan society established using ruins of war. Atwood explores how love can redefine and inflluence a person’s search for human dignity in The Republic of Gilead that discourages the pursuit for individualism and legalizes slavery (Atwood 8). Individualism in Herland Herland is a novel that sees women in an isolated land become fascinated with the beauty and mystery of the real world where there is a sense of conformity and recognition for femininity and masculinity. One of the characters in book, Moadine, affirms such fascination to the societal settings of the real world by declaring how wonderful and supremely beautiful man’s civilization must be due to the countless contribution of science and technology (Gilman 96). It is clearly manifested that Moadine, being one of older women who teaches the three men in the way of life of Herland, has fallen into the conundrum of the Utopian society of the modern world. Moadine’s curiosity on the civilized ways of man which women in Herland are being deprived with becomes an avenue for them to enter in the mysterious homeland of the three men. Moadine is in charged in guarding one of the three male captives, Terry, a classic male chauvinist attempts to fascinate Moadine with his knowledge and control over the female mind (Gilman 37). Terry is a portrait of individualist kind of male who only recognizes the strength of the males and perceives women to be as secondary beings. Terry deeply resents women in Herland who can exist without the help of men and dares to call them sexless, epicene, and undeveloped neuters (Gilman 157). But the bitterness of Terry and his negative attitude towards the women are set aside upon his realization that he is madly in love with Alima (Gilman 157). Alima is one of the girls of Herland and embodies the attitudes and non-conformist traditions of the land. She is a tall long-limbed lady, well-knit and strong and agile (Gilman 18). The personality and upbringing of Alima voices out female superiority over men and her individualist character is deeply rooted out from her self-confidence and belief that women should never consent to an unequal relationship with the opposite sex. Alima’s eyes are full of splendor and mirrors out her wide, fearless and reluctance to pain and losing which is indicative of her interest as more that of an intent male playing in the field than of a female lured by ornaments and gentleness of romance (Gilman 19). Knowing that women love to mastered, Terry is convinced to woe Alima using sheer brute force, pride and passion of his strong masculine side (Gilman 146). Alima eventually fall in love with Terry and eventually marries him. Their love confirms the failure of individualism as they both try to live in the Utopian society as husband and wife. Another character in the story who reflects the failure of individualism is Jeff, one of the three explorers who found out about Herland. Jeff is the complete opposite of Terry and is strongly challenged by the independent and athletic girls of the isolated land. Jeff’s individualist attitude is seen upon his involvement with the almost natural advantages of Herland and its people (Gilman 137). Jeff becomes confounded with Herland’s way of living and declares his personal love for the land (Gilman 138). Prior to the discovery of the land, it is known that Jeff is so much absorbed with the realities of the Earth but maintains a priestly and angelic approach to masculinity and womanhood. But his individualist view of the modern world is changed upon the discovery of Herland that makes him realize that there is a better world than the real one. His profound appreciation for the Herlandian culture is evident in the way he treats it women and Jeff has refined conception about the women in Herland and deep thoughts about the idealized femininity. Jeff is strongly in love with Celis, showers her with a mystique kind of romance, and keeps on insisting that he take care of her rather than doing the typical thing of treating her as his equal better half. Jeff worships Celis and the ideals which she presented (Gilman 137). Celis’s mild-mannered attitude and vulnerability force Jeff to think that twice of going back to the real world together with Celis (Gilman 149). Van, one of the explorers and also the narrator in the novel, thinks of Herland critically and philosophically. Van has always stood at the middle ground, thinking of the Herlandian culture using science and used to argue about the physiological limitations of sex (Gilman 11). As the girls of Herland think that sex is just for procreation, both Van and Jeff have learned to overcome difficulties concerning sex. Van used to declare the discovery the land is aiming at friendship, a civilized attitude on both sides (Gilman 24). Both Jeff and Van do not want to leave the different kind of utopian society which Herland has for their own patriarchal and male-dominated world. In this notion, it is evident that Van falls in love with the perfection of Herlandian culture and the ways of its women. It is seen in the attitude of Van that he is no longer interested with the pursuit of individualism as he is so much swept off by the beauty and perfection of Herland. Van’s wife Ellador is equally intelligent as Van and is being motivated by her curiosity of the utopian modern society of her husband as well as her love for Van. Ellador explains things sweetly and kindly and thinks of Van as a wise man with no foolishness (Gilman 117). Such concept of him makes Van reluctant to rejoin the realities of his world and present to Ellador the harshness and stupidities of the Earth (Gilman 117). Individualism in Anthem The story of Anthem revolves around its protagonist, the youth named Equality 7-2521. Equality 7-2521 finds himself in an unspecified date in which mankind is forced to negate all the concepts of individuality and conform to the productive and capitalist values which technological advancement brings. It is clearly manifested in the novel that the author tries to eliminate the philosophical idea of individualism by eliminating the pronoun â€Å"I† and replacing it with â€Å"We† and â€Å"our† and other plural pronouns which are all indicative of conformity. Being the protagonist in the story, Equality 7-2521 struggles between individualism and collectivism. In the beginning part of the story, it is already given that the protagonist fears to be alone and dreads the consequences of having one head and one body (Rand 1). The protagonist is caught up in a world that views individualism as an illegal act, great transgression and source of all evil (Rand 1). Equality 7-2521 is a street sweeper who believes in the concept of individualism and discourages the collectivist society which the Council has established. He can be described as vain and self-centered, brave and intelligent. His curiousity and desire for freedom are what makes him fearless of the society of brainless drones who surround him. The protagonist is a symbol of superiority of a singular intellectual being to the homogeneity of the whole society which does not have the courage to think for themselves and is indistinguishable from each other. In order to hide from the evils of the Palace of the Great Council, Equality 7-2521 hides in an underground tunnel where he is alone and fulfils his longing for solitude (Rand 23). He describes the feeling hiding inside an abandoned tunnel and writing about his sentiments on the world which has gone wrong as a liberating experience. According to the protagonist, the air is pure and odorless in the tunnel which gives him enough strength to survive underground (Rand 23). One of the sentiments of Equality 7-2521 is that there is no solidarity among the brotherhood because almost everyone seem to have their own personal problems, ideal and aspirations. Fraternity 2-5503 is described by the protagonist as a quiet boy with gentle eyes who suddenly cries without reason and whose body shakes at night with unexplainable sobs (Rand 24). Solidarity 9-6347 also belongs to the brotherhood and is described by Equality 7-2521 as an intelligent and bright youth, sometimes fearless, and screams in his sleep at night (Rand 24). These observations instigate an idea that the protagonist may be different from those around him and realizes how disturbing and troubling it is to be different. Such realization makes him regret his differences and attempts to bring himself into conformity which the Council continuously promotes. The friendship of Equality 7-2521 and International 4-8818 is said to be an evil thing as they both exist in a time of great Transgression of Preference that declares loving someone better than the others in the brotherhood as illegal as it is written that they should love all men and make friends with all of them (Rand 11). The friendship of Equality 7-2521 and International 4-8818 is suggestive of the protagonist’s half-hearted attempts to erase all of his preferences for individual people, to help and care for each person equally, and to be identical to his fellow brothers. International 4-8818 considers the protagonist as a prophet. When he and Equality 7-2521 found out about the tunnel, he is torn between loyalty to his friend and to the Council. He represents an individual who secretly search for his own meaning but is disrupted in his pursuit because of the fear of breaking the law of the Council. Another character from the story is The Transgressor of the Unspeakable Word. The protagonist describes the Transgressor as young and tall and has hair of gold and blue eyes (Rand 26). The Transgressor suffers no pain as he is burned alive and his tongue had been torn out so that he can no longer speak of the true essence and meaning of individualism (Rand 26). It is said that the Transgressor has an honorable death as there was no pain in his eyes and no hints of agony in his body (Rand 26). It is said that there was only joy and pride, a pride holier than what is fit for the human pride (Rand 26). The Transgressor’s fate is reflective of the Council’s resentment of the word â€Å"individualism† which The Transgressor had been longing to proclaim. Collective 0-0009 is the leader of the World Council of Scholars. Equality 7-2521 considers Collective as the oldest yet the wisest of the Council who hates and fears him (Rand 42). Collective 0-0009 questions the superiority and the intelligence of the protagonist and accuses him of breaking the laws of the Council and boasting infamy (Rand 44). The individualistic view of Collective 0-0009 is seen through his appreciation of the Council as the sole brain of the society (Rand 44). Collective 0-0009 symbolizes the thinking force behind the evils of the collectivism in the society. Though he resents Equality 7-2521, the Collective 0-0009 is shapeless and cowardly and deeply reliant on the Council. When Equality 7-2521 meets the Golden One, his search for individualism is destroyed because he enters into a new phase in his life in which there is more to life than battling collectivism. He ventures into perfection and utopia that love insinuates as he no longer desires to deny that he prefers some of his fellows over the others. The Golden One is the name given to Liberty 5-3000 (Rand 19). Because the protagonist thinks about her all the time and his desire for love is overwhelming, he gives himself to the illegal deed. In so doing, he no longer presents to readers an individualistic Equality 7-2521, but shows to them that he is swept off by the utopia which love brings. Moreover, the Golden One gives the protagonist the privilege of having a meaningful relationship with another human being. According to Equality 7-2521, he feels all of a sudden that the Earth is good and that it is not a burden to live (Rand 19). It is evident from the beginning that the Golden One tends to be haughty and proud and does not recognize all of the constituents of the society except for Equality 7-2521. The Golden One strongly adores the protagonist because he is the bravest and the sharpest among the brotherhood. Such qualities of the protagonist make her subservient to him almost instantly as she initiates to take care of him as early as the third time they meet. When she follows him to the Uncharted Forest, she becomes the possession of Equality 7-2521 totally and she remains in that manner until the end. Individualism in The Handmaid’s Tale Atwood’s novel explores the theme of female subjugation set in the Republic of Gilead, a totalitarian and theocratic country that has replaced the United States of America in the map (Foster 6). The story is being narrated by Offred, one of the handmaids in the state. It is noted that the handmaids in the country are assigned to bear children for rich couples that have trouble conceiving. The country is founded by a male chauvinist, theocratic-organized military coup as a radical response to the pervasive social, moral and ecological degradation of the country. At the first chapter, the narrator briefly describes the differences between the social setting of the country prior to the establishment of the new republic and the present time in which women are seen as objects whose value depends on their ability to give birth (Atwood 9). The novel presents to readers an individualistic view of women as utilities for childbirth. Offred, the narrator, considers herself as a walking womb because of her duty as a handmaid whose only duty is to help maintain the declining white population (Foster 6). In the newly established country, women are stripped off of their economic and social opportunities and privileges and are recognized for their role of giving birth. The wife of the Commander, Serena Joy, fails is ashamed of herself because of her inability to conceive and somewhat envies Offred for her reproductive capacity (Atwood 20). Offred is a patronymic slave name that refers to the Commander which she serves, such as Fred. Offred is the protagonist in the story who reflects the failure to possess an individualistic attitude by engaging in an affectionate affair. Following a continuous prodding by the Commander’s wife, Offred succumbs to an illegal affair with Nick to save herself from the uncertainties which lay ahead (Atwood 226).

Manchester school of anthropology School - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1977 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Anthropology Essay Type Review Tags: School Essay Did you like this example? What were the distinctive features of the Manchester school of anthropology? Structural-functionalism, which dominated British social anthropology for much of the twentieth century, interpreted society in terms of its institutions. Institutions provided society with its structure and worked together to keep society, a bounded unit, in a state of equilibrium. A persons role or position in the structure determined their behaviour. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Manchester school of anthropology School" essay for you Create order In the early 1950s, criticisms of the structural-functionalist approach began to emerge from the Manchester school of anthropology, a group of anthropologists involved with the anthropology department at Manchester University. The Manchester school reacted against the obsession with formal institutions and the structure they supposedly produced. Many felt it was time to move away from the search for ideal types and focus on the much-neglected individual and how he/she coped in a system full of contradictions and inconsistencies. The Manchester school developed a distinctive approach which focused on the role of conflict in society, acknowledged the importance of the wider context (particularly the impact of colonialism), shed light on the issue of multiple identities through their studies of urban and rural communities, and advanced a new analytical model; namely social network analysis. Although the school is distinct in certain ways, its continued reliance on the structural-func tionalist paradigm must be realised. In contrast to structural-functionalists, the Manchester school did not see social equilibrium as â€Å"a simple affair, resulting from the neat integration of groups or norms. On the contrary it emerges through the balancing of oppositions in a dialectical process† [Kuper 1973, 139]. In other words, conflict is an inherent part of society but certain mechanisms exist to ease the tensions and maintain an equilibrium. Ritual, according to Max Gluckman, was one such mechanism. He analysed â€Å"rituals of rebellion† in southern African societies and argued that â€Å"whatever the ostensible purpose of the ceremonies, a most striking feature of their organization is the way in which they openly express social tensions† [Gluckman 1963, 112]. One such ceremony occurred in Swaziland. The dominant cleavage in the society was between the king and his subjects. During the ceremony various groups formed cross-cutting ties whic h undermined and reduced the severity of the dominant cleavage and the kings subjects were given the opportunity to voice their hatred towards him. â€Å"This ceremony is†¦a stressing of conflict, a statement of rebellion and rivalry against the king, with periodical affirmations of unity with the king† [Gluckman 1963, 125]. One could infer that such a ritual could totally disrupt a society based on the domination of the ruled by the ruler. Crucially however, the people are rebelling specifically against the king, and not against the institution of kingship; â€Å"the rebellious ritual occurs within an established and unchallenged social order† [Gluckman 1963, 126-27]. In sum Gluckman explains, The acceptance of the established order as right and good, and even sacred, seems to allow unbridled excess, very rituals of rebellion, for the order itself keeps this rebellion within bounds. Hence to act the conflicts, whether directly or by inversion or in other sy mbolic form, emphasizes the social cohesion within which the conflict exists [Gluckman 1963, 127] The ritual reaffirms and perpetuates the social order. Gluckmans fieldwork in Zululand and Swaziland established conflict as an unavoidable aspect for analysis in the study of society. However, he has been criticized by many for continuing to use a structural-functionalist paradigm. His studies address the issue of conflict but always in terms of how it is contained by mediating mechanisms (such as ritual) which reaffirm the social order. Kuper explains that this emphasis on the maintenance of equilibrium grew out of his study of white-ruled Zululand, ‘which despite its many unresolved and irresoluble conflicts, â€Å"worked†, obliging him to consider ‘how social systems could contain the deep conflicts which are present in all of them [Kuper 1973, 141]. In other words, Gluckman concentrated on repetitive (as opposed to changing) social systems in which â€Å"changes occur not by alterations in the order of offices, but by changes in the persons occupying those offices† [Gluckman 1963, 128]. This, Kuper argues, is â€Å"the most vulnerable feature of Gluckmans theory† [Kuper 1973, 140]. Although it may shed light on small-scale, non-centralized communities, it ignores conflicts â€Å"in which the contending parties no longer share the basic values upon which the legitimacy of the social system rests† [Swartz 1966, 34]. From the viewpoint of the sociology of knowledge, it is no accident that this alteration of analytical focus from structure to process has developed during a period in which the formerly colonial territories of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific have been undergoing far-reaching political changes that have culminated in independence [Swartz 1966, 3] In other words, with many countries engaged in the struggle for their independence, anthropologists working in the 1950s and 1960s finally accepted that â€Å"the total political situation should be taken into account† [Kuper 1973, 142]. As the Manchester school anthropologists carried out most of th eir work in British Central Africa they focussed particularly on the impact of colonialism and capitalism in the societies they studied. Gluckman argued for the recognition of â€Å"a Central African Society of heterogeneous culture-groups of Europeans and Africans† [Kuper 1973, 141]. The point of articulation between imperial and indigenous cultures was epitomized in the position of the headman or elected elder, an office institutionalised by the British. He was seen as an â€Å"inter-calary figure†, caught between the demands of the state and the demands of his people [Kuper 1973, 143]. As Epsteins classic study of Politics in an Urban African Community shows, when Africans rioted against the British in response to an increase in taxes in 1935, the elected elders were also attacked and forced to take shelter with the colonial masters [Kuper 1973, 146]. Such studies shed light on the flaws of the colonial system and the social problems it had caused, topics almost entirely avoided by previous anthropologists. The Manchester school also focused their attention towards urban and not just rural localities. Through recognition of the urban as a valid and necessary unit of study, the school brought the issues of multiple identities and situational selection to the fore. The process of urbanization in colonial Africa markedly increased the number of identities people associated with themselves. â€Å"Sometimes a man might side with Bemba against non-Bemba; at other times with clerks against underground workers; and then again line up with fellow Africans against the white mine authority or the government† [Kuper 1973, 146-47]. In other words, people responded to this identity dilemma by choosing to use or ally with different identities, depending on the social situation; this technique is known as situational selection. In the Kalela Dance Mitchell argues that the same group of people can have very different relationships depending on whether they are in a tribal or urban setting. Thus, â€Å"ethnic identity is both situational and negotiated by actors amongst each other, and any continuity is possible in principle but not guaranteed† [Rogers 1995, 23]. In 1954 Barnes published his study of a Norwegian Parish and introduced the concept of the social network as an analytical tool [Mitchell 1969, 5]. â€Å"Basically, network analysis is very simple: it asks questions about who is linked to whom, the nature of that linkage, and how the nature of the linkage affects behaviour† [Boissevain 1979, 393]. Social network analysis studied the relationships of interacting people in actual situations. The individual, instead of structures or institutions, was the starting point. This allowed anthropologists to â€Å"concern (themselves) with individuals using social roles rather than with roles using individuals, and with the crossing and manipulation rather than the acceptance of institutional boundaries † [Rogers 1995, 20]. In contrast to the structural-functionalist approach which viewed a persons role in the structure as determining their behaviour, social network analysis considered how individuals adopt and modify the rules to further their own interests and â€Å"use network linkages in order to achieve desired ends† [Mitchell 1969, 38]. Network analysis was found to be particularly useful for studies of larger scale communities. As Mitchell argues, this is because of the â€Å"large number of single-stranded relationships in them, therefore institutional integration is relatively weak† [Mitchell 1969, 48]. In other words, in bigger, more complex communities people have fewer overlapping relations; using an institutional approach is simply not sufficient for such societies. Also, â€Å"social network analysis facilitates the tracing of the connections between locality and wider contexts†, an important factor in an approach so concerned with the â €Å"total† situation [Rogers 1995, 18]. An interesting aspect of social network analysis is its application of mathematical methods to anthropological study. Mitchell argues that the â€Å"use of graph theory and probability mathematics provides an intriguing method of erecting model networks with which empirical networks can be compared† [Mitchell 1969, 34]. This â€Å"openness to methodological innovation† was a key feature of the Manchester school but the school also widely accepted that statistical methods should be used as an aid, and not form the basis of anthropological analysis [Kuper 1973, 142]. There are numerous problems with social network analysis. â€Å"The study of personal networks requires meticulous and systematic detailed recording of data on social interaction for a fairly large group of people, a feat which few fieldworkers accomplish successfully† [Mitchell 1969, 11]. Social network analysis is simply too time-consuming and det ailed for it to be a viable analytical model in many situations. Also, although the level of abstraction is not as great as it is in the structural-functionalist approach, the anthropologist must still identify the limits or extent of a network, and select the individual or group at the centre of it. The isolation of one part of the network is â€Å"based on the fieldworkers judgement of what links are significant in explaining the behaviour of the people with whom he is concerned† [Mitchell 1969, 13-14]. Just as structural-functionalists â€Å"found† structures in society, the Manchester school â€Å"found† networks. However, the important factor to keep in mind with regard to social network analysis is that it was always intended as a complement to structural-functional analysis. As Mitchell outlines, the â€Å"notion of social networks is complementary to and not a substitute for conventional frameworks of analysis† [Mitchell 1969, 8]. In conc lusion, it is clear that the Manchester school was distinctive for several reasons. Firstly, it was an action-oriented approach which described the social system as it actually was, full of conflicts and contradictions. Cleavages and tensions were dealt with through various redressive mechanisms. Secondly, it rejected the view of society as a bounded unit and acknowledged the influence of a wider context in all situations; the role of colonialism in causing social problems in Africa was highlighted. In addition, the Manchester school addressed both urban and rural localities and in doing so furthered anthropologys understanding of multiple identities and the necessary application of situational selection. Finally, the school advanced the use of social network analysis, applying mathematical methods to the study of culture and bringing the individual and his/her interactions with other actors in actual settings to the centre of study. Despite these advances, the Manchester scho ol continued to function within a structural-functionalist paradigm. This is shown, for example, by the fact that conflict was studied only in relation to equilibrium; the school did not account for social change or transformation. Also, although they emphasised the impact and inequalities of the colonial system, the Manchester anthropologists did not provide a general theoretical approach for the colonial situation. Finally, its analytical model was designed as a complement to structural-functionalist modes of analysis. The Manchester school is characterised by several distinct features however, overall it â€Å"represents more of a shift of emphasis than a complete departure from pre-war structuralism† [Kuper 1973, 148]. Bibliography Boissevain, J. 1979. Network analysis: a reappraisal, Current Anthropology 20: 392-394. Gluckman, M. 1963. Order and rebellion in tribal Africa. London: Cohen West. Hannerz, U. 1992. The global ecumene as a network of networks, in A. Kuper (ed.) Conceptualising society. London: Routledge. Kuper, A. 1973. Anthropology and anthropologists: The modern British school. London: Routledge. Mitchell, J.C. 1969. Social networks in urban situations. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Rogers, A. S. Vertovec. 1995. The urban context: ethnicity, social networks and situational analysis. Oxford: Berg. Swartz, M., V. Turner A. Tuden. 1966. Political anthropology. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.